The TPB is widely recognized for its effectiveness in predicting consumers' behavioral intentions across different contexts, including irradiated foods (D'Souza et al., 2021), game meat (D'Souza, 2022), genetically modified (GM) foods (Dupont et al., 2022) and 3D-printed foods, among others (Yang et al., 2024). The TPB is suitable for explaining gain-oriented behaviors through a cognitive evaluation of outcomes -- such as the costs, benefits, and risks associated with accepting 3D-printed food (Hoesterey et al., 2023). The TPB's flexible structure allows for the inclusion of additional constructs, making the extended TPB model more resilient (Yang et al., 2024). (Stone et al., 2022) also found that TPB constructs, such as attitude and subjective norms, significantly affect consumers' willingness to try unconventional foods, such as insect-based foods -- supporting TPB's relevance to 3D-printed food acceptance.
This study applied the TPB by integrating consumers' religious beliefs to predict their intention to accept 3D-printed food. Religiosity is a key determinant of food consumption behavior, as religious scriptures provide guidelines for accepting or rejecting certain foods (Kirmani et al., 2023). Intrinsic religiosity can also predict planned behavior regarding novel food technologies such as 3D printing (Yang et al., 2024). Conner (2015) suggested that theoretically significant moderating variables can enhance the predictive power of TPB. Food neophobia and FTN refer to individuals' psychological reluctance traits linked to their acceptance of novel foods (Brunner et al., 2018) and significantly influence individual perceived values for 3D-printed foods (Lee et al., 2021). Accordingly, this study uses food neophobia and FTN as moderators that can affect the relationship between TPB constructs and consumers' intentions to accept 3D-printed foods. All hypothesized relationships are summarized in Fig. 1.
Certain religions fundamentally shape people's evaluations of innovations related to food consumption (Matsuoka et al., 2023). Their beliefs often contain explicit dietary guidelines or implicit norms about what is permissible or morally acceptable, such as halal food in Islam, Kosher in Judaism, and vegetarianism in Hinduism (Minton et al., 2019). Devout followers of such religions may evaluate novel food technologies through a religious lens (Chaloupkova et al., 2025). This evaluation can facilitate the intention to accept novel foods if they are congruent with the beliefs and religious dietary laws. For instance, Roslin et al. (2022) highlighted that clear halal certifications could improve Muslim consumers' intention to accept 3D-printed foods, thereby ensuring ingredient traceability and purity.
Conversely, skeptic evaluation involves perceiving production methods as morally questionable or disrespectful to religion, which can lead to the rejection of novel foods (D'Souza et al., 2024). For example, certain religious communities are skeptical of GM foods due to permissibility-related uncertainties (Omobowale et al., 2009). Some religious conservatives may view these technologies as interfering with nature and thus reject them because of ethical or theological objections. Lanz et al. (2024) indicated that 3D-printed food may be considered unnatural and artificial, significantly reducing its acceptance among populations sensitive to such factors. Alternatively, some religions may value the responsible use of technology (Soleymani et al., 2024), accepting ethically marketed foods that minimize food waste and prioritize animal welfare and responsible consumption. Consequently, 3D food printing may align well with religious and ethical frameworks (Mudau and Adebo, 2024). Because literature provides contrasting findings regarding relationship between religious beliefs and acceptability of novel foods, thus further context-specific investigation and empirical testing is needed. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:
H1: Religious beliefs significantly influence consumers' intention to accept 3D-printed food.
Religion is a social determinant of food consumption behavior (Aslan, 2023). While motivations for consuming specific food vary, moral behavior reflects one's religious beliefs (Ong et al., 2024). Religiosity as a commitment can impact one's food preferences, such as the acceptance or avoidance of certain foods (Aslan, 2023). Certain religions provide guidelines for consumers' diets -- e.g., kosher laws in Judaism, halal in Islam, vegetarianism in Hinduism, and animal restrictions in Buddhism (Minton et al., 2019). Moreover, religious beliefs can have differential effects on consumer food preferences based on the type of food (Ong et al., 2024). For example, strict rules may apply to meat-based products like sausages but not to plant-based items like chocolate. Nearly half of the global population follows religions that have rules about consuming meat (Soleymani et al., 2024). 3D food printing can help address these diverse needs by incorporating various ingredients and replicating complex food structures to align with religious dietary requirements (Lanz et al., 2024).
Religiosity may also affect attitudes related to ethical and sustainable behaviors (Singh et al., 2021). For example, the doctrines of certain religions provide a moral obligation for the responsible use of natural resources (Kirmani et al., 2023), which is often reinforced by prominent religious authorities (e.g., Pope Francis in Christianity), shaping followers' actions (Pegan et al., 2023). Moreover, religiosity is important for improving food security by shaping individual attitudes (Aslan, 2023). 3D printing, as an affordable and innovative technology, can lower economic costs, reduce food waste in traditional food supply chains, and promote sustainable food production (Millán, 2024). However, certain religious guidelines dictate daily food safety practices. For instance, Islam encourages adequate hygiene and food safety practices, such as washing hands before eating (Al Bayari et al., 2023). 3D-printed food addresses food security and handling issues by enabling customised, nutritionally balanced meals made from mechanically mixed ingredients (Mudau and Adebo, 2024). Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:
H2: Religious beliefs significantly influence consumers' attitudes towards 3D-printed food.
Individuals who gain approval within their value systems are more inclined to adopt certain behaviors (Filimonau et al., 2023). Social pressures within religious contexts can also influence consumer purchase intentions. Numerous studies have confirmed how religiosity frames subjective norms across various domains, such as apparel products (Zaki and Elseidi, 2024) and food waste intentions (Elhoushy and Jang, 2021). Highly religious individuals often align their behavior with that of influential religious figures -- such as devout family members or peers -- leading them to prefer religiously compliant products and services (Graafland, 2017).
As religious values influence the attitudes and behaviors of a religious community, they will also impact the subjective norms of individuals close to religious individuals (Zaki and Elseidi, 2024). Strong religious beliefs encourage individual subjective norms toward consuming socially responsible products (Graafland, 2017). While sustainability is a growing concern even in less religious societies, religiosity is a key driver of sustainable consumption in highly religious contexts (Orellano et al., 2020). For example, religions such as Islam, Christianity, Judaism, and Hinduism discourage food waste (Kirmani et al., 2023) and promote environmentally sustainable behaviors among their followers (Singh et al., 2021). Similarly, when one's religious peers recognize food wastage as sinful, it will influence the individual's subjective norms for reducing food waste and promoting environmental consciousness (Filimonau et al., 2023), potentially increasing the acceptance of 3D-printed food. The actions of religious family members are typically governed by subjective norms, which are often contingent on religion and the level of religiosity within the family (Kasber et al.,2023). Thus, it is postulated that
H3: Religious beliefs significantly influence consumers' subjective norms for 3D-printed food.
When individuals believe that they can manage external and internal factors -- such as time and skills -- that affect their behavior, they are more inclined toward that behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Those with strong religious inclinations often perceive the world through the prism of their faith, which influences their beliefs and attitudes. Consequently, these religious convictions affect PBC (Jackson and Bergeman, 2011). Greater religiosity is often linked to a stronger sense of self-regulation, authority, and control over one's behavior (Kasber et al., 2023). For example, devout Muslims strictly adhere to halal guidelines (Khan et al., 2022).
3D food printing technology provides complete control over ingredients, enabling consumers to customize, verify, and personally manage the food-printing process (Brunner et al., 2018); this makes it easier for religious people to ensure that 3D-printed food complies with their religious dietary laws, increasing PBC. Similarly, certain religions promote the responsible use of natural resources like food (Aslan, 2023), and followers with high PBC are more likely to minimize food waste (Filimonau et al., 2023). As 3D food printing optimizes the use of ingredients, it aligns with religious individuals' PBC and desires to limit food waste (Millán, 2024). Additionally, certain religious doctrines emphasize the responsibility of managing food insecurity (Mudau and Adebo, 2024). Through 3D-printed food technology, religious individuals may feel empowered to fulfill both ethical and spiritual duties, enhancing their PBC. Hence, we hypothesized the following:
H4: Religious beliefs significantly influence consumers' PBC for 3D-printed food.
An individual's attitude reflects their holistic assessment of objects, such as food, capturing their sentiments and opinions (Yang et al., 2024). People with a favorable disposition toward 3D-printed foods view them as cutting-edge, thrilling, and futuristic (Lupton, 2017), which can increase their inclination to consume such products. For instance, those who view 3D-printed food as nutritious and eco-friendly (Brunner et al., 2018) are more inclined to select it over conventional alternatives (Manstan and McSweeney, 2020). Furthermore, those with a favorable view of 3D-printed food tend to endorse it to others, potentially amplifying its acceptance and appeal (Yang et al., 2024).
Brunner et al. (2018) found that individuals familiar with 3D food printing exhibited less attitude enhancement than other participants. Caulier et al. (2020) emphasized that consumers' attitudes become more favorable as they acquire hands-on experience or knowledge of 3D-printed foods. While the reliance on physical infrastructure and skilled labor has made traditional manufacturing methods costly, particularly in developing nations (Baiano, 2022), 3D printing has emerged as a promising solution for developed countries, fostering entrepreneurship among independent freelancers and small-scale manufacturers (Nopparat and Motte, 2024). Overall, attitude significantly shapes the intention to utilize 3D food-printing technology, ultimately affecting real-world adoption (Yang et al., 2024). Lee et al. (2021) suggested that individuals' values and attitudes are pivotal in determining their consumption intentions for 3D-printed foods. Therefore, we hypothesized the following:
H5: Consumers' attitude significantly influences their intention to accept 3D-printed food.
Consumer-centric subjective norms revolve around individuals' perceptions of how their consumption of novel foods is viewed by family members, friends, and peers, as well as expectations shaped by others with similar values (D'Souza et al., 2021). This perception is grounded in the notion that individuals' behaviors are shaped by the viewpoints of influential figures whom they seek to emulate(Khan et al., 2022). Socially desirable opinions significantly impact food consumption decisions (Aslan, 2023). Subjective norms are pivotal catalysts for consumer goods in developed (Graafland, 2017) and developing markets (Zaki and Elseidi, 2024).
Aslan (2023) and Kirmani et al. (2023) similarly found that subjective norms significantly and favorably influence intention and actual behavior. People are more likely to purchase 3D-printed food when there is social consensus among their companions regarding its consumption (Yang et al., 2024), highlighting the role of social validation in consumer adoption of 3D-printed foods. Yang et al. (2024) further confirmed that peer influence significantly shapes individuals' intentions to adopt 3D food-printing technology. Therefore, we hypothesized the following:
H6: Subjective norms significantly influence consumers' intention to accept 3D-printed food.
As PBC reflects control beliefs -- how individuals perceive access to resources needed to act -- greater self-control signals a heightened motivation to engage in specific behaviors (Singh et al., 2021). Individuals who lack the resources and opportunities to engage in certain behaviors are less inclined to adopt them, even with positive attitudes and social support (Aslan, 2023). This implies that adequate resources are necessary to execute certain activities or behaviors (Filimonau et al., 2023). Moreover, individuals embrace a behavior only when the challenges associated with its implementation are deemed manageable (Kirmani et al., 2023).
The literature shows that PBC is a strong antecedent of consumption intention for foods such as irradiated foods (D'Souza et al., 2021). This is because individuals perceive that consuming such food types is easy and gives them the freedom to choose. Similarly, 3D food printers provide consumers with both hedonic and utilitarian value, making the technology convenient (Lee et al., 2021). People evaluate obstructions, resources, opportunities, and behavioral control before consuming 3D-printed foods (Yang et al., 2024). Those who perceive the technology as user-friendly will consume 3D-printed food products. Thus, individuals with a high PBC for 3D-printed foods are more likely to consume them. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:
H7: PBC significantly influences consumers' intention to accept 3D-printed food.
Consumers often resist novel food technologies, viewing novel foods as less beneficial than natural alternatives (Lanz et al., 2024). This avoidance is often driven by FTN especially when unconventional processes alter, remove, or add components, making the food seem less natural (Manstan and McSweeney, 2020). The literature on FTN is gaining prominence regarding consumers' acceptance of novel products, such as GM (Conroy and Errmann, 2023) and 3D-printed foods (Lee et al., 2021). Studies have linked distrust of science, limited understanding of food technology advancements, and unfamiliarity with functional components as precursors of FTN (Dupont et al., 2022). Individual attitudes shaped by FTN are major barriers to novel food acceptance. Moreover, FTN significantly moderates consumers' food attributes and perceived value relationships concerning 3D-printed food (Lee et al., 2021); thus, it could similarly moderate the relationship between consumers' attitudes and intention to accept 3D-printed foods.
People also avoid food technology when they perceive that their society does not recognize or accept novel foods (Dupont et al., 2022). Even those who adapt to technological food innovations are influenced by subjective norms. Technologies altering internal food structures (e.g., gene grafting) are perceived as more intrusive, lowering PBC and purchase intent compared to external-tech changes like robotics (Conroy and Errmann, 2023). Conversely, those with high innovativeness are more likely to accept 3D-printed foods (Yang et al., 2024). Thus, we propose the following hypotheses:
H8: FTN moderates the relationship between consumers' attitudes and intention to accept 3D-printed food.
H9: FTN moderates the relationship between subjective norms and consumers' intention to accept 3D-printed food.
H10: FTN moderates the relationship between PBC and consumers' intention to accept 3D-printed food.
Fear of unfamiliar food reflects a tendency to avoid new culinary offerings, especially those created by novel technologies such as cultured meat (Hamlin et al., 2022) or 3D-printed food (Lee et al., 2021). Hence, assessing food neophobia is crucial for understanding and predicting consumers' psychological responses and intentions toward unfamiliar foods. Rozin et al. (2008) highlighted that humans reject food because of sensory aversion, fear of unfavorable consequences, or disgust. As 3D-printed food is manufactured from liquid materials and slurry paste, it can evoke disgust due to its sensory characteristics (Manstan and McSweeney, 2020). However, perceived benefits and nutritional knowledge can improve consumer attitudes towards 3D-printed food (Brunner et al., 2018). Lupton and Turner (2018) found that most consumers expressed concerns about the safety, nutritional value, and the idea of consuming food made using a printer. The term "printer" itself negatively influenced participants' receptiveness despite arguments regarding its potential benefits. However, a minority of adventurous diners were willing to consume 3D-printed food.
Studies report mixed findings on the moderating effects of food neophobia on the relationship between consumer attitudes and their intention to adopt novel foods, showing both positive effects (D'Souza, 2022) and no effect (Huang et al., 2019). D'Souza (2022) also found that food neophobia positively influences subjective norms and novel food consumption intention, but cannot confirm the significance between consumers' PBC and intention. These inconsistencies highlight the need to further explore food neophobia's moderating role in the context of 3D-printed foods. Thus, consumers with high or low neophobia may differ in attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC, yet still show similar consumption intentions. Therefore, we hypothesized the following:
H11: Food neophobia moderates the relationship between consumers' attitudes and intention to accept 3D-printed food.
H12: Food neophobia moderates the relationship between subjective norms and consumers' intention to accept 3D-printed food.